Sumerian cities were surrounded by defensive walls. It was provided with a door which turned on a hinge, and could be opened with a sort of key; the city gate was on a larger scale, and seems to have been double. Following the downfall of the Akkadian Empire at the hands of Gutians, another native Sumerian ruler, Gudea of Lagash, rose to local prominence and continued the practices of the Sargonic kings' claims to divinity. In particular, cedar from Lebanon was prized. It was their literary compositions that were used by twentieth century scholars to maintain a compelling picture of the Sumerians as a distinct people. in, Jacobsen, Thorkild (Ed) (1939),"The Sumerian King List" (Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago; Assyriological Studies, No. Some female slaves were used as concubines by the master. He was the last ethnically Sumerian king before Sargon of Akkad.[35]. [84] The farmers would use threshing wagons, driven by oxen, to separate the cereal heads from the stalks and then use threshing sleds to disengage the grain. [43]:23, The Uruk period civilization, exported by Sumerian traders and colonists (like that found at Tell Brak), had an effect on all surrounding peoples, who gradually evolved their own comparable, competing economies and cultures. Coordinates: .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}32N 46E / 32N 46E / 32; 46, (Shamshi-Adad dynasty18081736 BCE)(Amorites)Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Triangular or wedge-shaped reeds were used to write on moist clay. As for the Atlantic slave trade, this began in 1444 A.D., when Portuguese traders brought the first large number of slaves from Africa to Europe. In addition, his realm extended to parts of Elam and along the Persian Gulf. Beneath the lu-gal ("great man" or king), all members of society belonged to one of two basic strata: The "lu" or free person, and the slave (male, arad; female geme). Some authors have proposed that there may be evidence of a substratum or adstratum language for geographic features and various crafts and agricultural activities, called variously Proto-Euphratean or Proto Tigrean, but this is disputed by others. [52] This greatly upset the balance of power within the region, weakening the areas where Sumerian was spoken, and comparatively strengthening those where Akkadian was the major language. Slaves mostly worked domestic chores in the homes of the wealthy, but could also be used in the temple to do work for the priests. From the mid-third millennium BCE, Sumerian royal inscriptions refer to a homeland (kalam), sometimes in parallel with ki-en-gi (Akkadian Sumer), which seems to refer in a general sense to southern Mesopotamia. Who were the ancient Babylonians (Sumerians)? - Lines & Precepts Monumental inscriptions and texts on different objects, like statues or bricks, are also very common. The only reference to Sumer in the Bible is to `the Land of Shinar (Genesis 10:10 and elsewhere), which people interpreted to most likely mean the land surrounding Babylon, until the Assyriologist Jules Oppert (1825-1905 CE) identified the biblical reference with the region of southern Mesopotamia known as Sumer and. The Sumerians were Black: Dr Clyde Winters After drying, they plowed, harrowed, and raked the ground three times, and pulverized it with a mattock, before planting seed. The Nodites, a race that started about 200,000 years ago, had black hair. [93] Various inscriptions also mention the presence of Meluhha traders and interpreters in Mesopotamia. The Sumerians adopted an agricultural lifestyle perhaps as early as c. 50004500 BC. [citation needed]. These deities formed the main pantheon, and in addition to this there were hundreds of other minor gods. Sumer, located in Mesopotamia, is the first known complex civilization, having developed the first city-states in the 4th millennium BCE. The text usually referred to as the Sumerian King List (SKL) is a composition somewhere between a literary text and a list proper, which deals with the history of kingship in Babylonia from the beginning of time to the early centuries of the second millennium BCE. WebOthers have suggested that the Sumerians were a North African people who migrated from the Green Sahara into the Middle East and were responsible for the spread of farming in Sumerian structures were made of plano-convex mudbrick, not fixed with mortar or cement. The first true city-states arose in Sumer, roughly contemporaneously with similar entities in what are now Syria and Lebanon. Mud-brick buildings eventually deteriorate, so they were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same spot. First, transport: the wheel began to be used on carts and battle chariots. Assembled from archaeological and written evidence over the past 150 years, the idea of a Sumerian people has been shaped by the shifting social, political and intellectual contexts of scholarship and popular reception. Sumerian princess of the time of Gudea c. 2150 BC. What skin color were the Sumerians? This was corroborated by other scholars including, Chandra Chakaberty, who asserted in his book A Study in Hindu Social Polity that based on the statuaries and steles of Babylonia, the Sumerians were of dark complexion (chocolate colour ), short stature, but of sturdy frame, oval face, stout nose, straight hair, The son of a lu was called a dumu-nita until he married. By the Ur III period, farmers had switched from wheat to the more salt-tolerant barley as their principal crop. [59]:34. 77 The mortals were indeed the Sumerians, a non-Semitic racial type that conquered southern Babylonia, and the deities were Semitic, taken over by the newly arrived Sumerians from the indigenous Semites. Sumerians believed in anthropomorphic The king-priest and his acolyte feeding the sacred herd. [51] Poorly drained irrigated soils, in an arid climate with high levels of evaporation, led to the buildup of dissolved salts in the soil, eventually reducing agricultural yields severely. The coastline was nearly reaching Ur in ancient times. 'head' + 'black', or , sag-gg-ga phonetically /sa i a/, lit. The Akkadian Empire dates to c. 22342154 BC (middle chronology). The Sumerians practiced similar irrigation techniques as those used in Egypt. The Eastern Semitic Akkadian language is first attested in proper names of the kings of Kish c. 2800 BC,[48] preserved in later king lists. Were It is an agglutinative language; in other words, morphemes ("units of meaning") are added together to create words, unlike analytic languages where morphemes are purely added together to create sentences. The inscriptions of King Shulgi, who likely spoke Akkadian, describe him as being of Sumerian seed, but perhaps only in the sense that he originated from southern Mesopotamia and had mastered the dead language. The Sumerians and Mesopotamia (article) | Khan Academy Print. Genders, man and woman wear straight skirts and shawls in Babylon. They built this by constructing and linking several arches. It ended in the face of Amorite incursions at the beginning of the second millennium BC. 2016 have suggested a partial North African origin for some pre-Semitic cultures of the Middle East, particularly Natufians, after testing the genomes of Natufian and Pre-Pottery Neolithic culture-bearers. [92] Carnelian beads from the Indus were found in the Sumerian tombs of Ur, the Royal Cemetery at Ur, dating to 26002450. The decipherment of cuneiform in the mid nineteenth century revealed that a majority of the known inscriptions recorded a Semitic language that would come to be termed Akkadian. [88], Evidence for imports from the Indus to Ur can be found from around 2350 BC. [43][pageneeded]. The story of the passing of the gifts of civilization (me) to Inanna, goddess of Uruk and of love and war, by Enki, god of wisdom and chief god of Eridu, may reflect the transition from Eridu to Uruk. WebWho were the ancestors of the Sumerians? The oldest evidence for occupation comes from Tell el-'Oueili, but, given that environmental conditions in southern Mesopotamia were favourable to human occupation well before the Ubaid period, it is likely that older sites exist but have not yet been found. For another list of Mesopotamian finds of Indus seals: Roux, Georges (1992), "Ancient Iraq" (Penguin). They may have invented military formations and introduced the basic divisions between infantry, cavalry, and archers. Mirroring the way that muddy islands emerge from the confluence of fresh and salty water at the mouth of the Euphrates, where the river deposits its load of silt, a second hieros gamos supposedly resulted in the creation of Anshar and Kishar, the "sky-pivot" (or axle), and the "earth pivot", parents in turn of Anu (the sky) and Ki (the earth). They brewed multiple kinds of beer consisting of wheat, barley, and mixed grain beers. [77] Human sacrifice was found in the death pits at the Ur royal cemetery where Queen Puabi was accompanied in death by her servants. The Tigris-Euphrates plain lacked minerals and trees. Cereals were plentiful and were the key ingredient in their early brew. [65]:151. The credit for this must go to the Reverend Edward Hincks (1792-1866). The spearmen are shown arranged in what resembles the phalanx formation, which requires training and discipline; this implies that the Sumerians may have used professional soldiers.[108]. The dynastic period begins c. 2900 BC and was associated with a shift from the temple establishment headed by council of elders led by a priestly "En" (a male figure when it was a temple for a goddess, or a female figure when headed by a male god)[46] towards a more secular Lugal (Lu = man, Gal = great) and includes such legendary patriarchal figures as Dumuzid, Lugalbanda and Gilgameshwho reigned shortly before the historic record opens c. 2900 BC, when the now deciphered syllabic writing started to develop from the early pictograms. Their descendants are the African Diaspora of North and South America Read More, The Sumerian language is unrelated to any other language past or present. Native Sumerian rule re-emerged for about a century in the Third Dynasty of Ur at approximately 21002000 BC, but the Akkadian language also remained in use for some time. The rich finds from the Royal Graves of Ur as well as the discovery of sculptures of men and women dedicated in temples at sites such as Tell Asmar helped to transform the Sumerians from a subject of ethnographic study to one in which they were understood as the makers of art. General location on a modern map, and main cities of Sumer with ancient coastline. Uruk) era suggest that "Stone was scarce, but was already cut into blocks and seals. were used as a writing medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age and well into the Iron Age. [14] The Akkadians also called the Sumerians 'black-headed people', or almat-qaqqadi, in the Semitic Akkadian language. Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford. Although completely discredited today, such racial science grouped people (both in the past as well as the contemporary world) into types based on their language, religion, technological abilities and physical appearance, so as to situate them on a sliding scale from primitive to civilized. As early as 1849 Hincks had also concluded that the language of the inventors of cuneiform was not in fact Akkadian and that the system of writing derived from a people who spoke a non-Semitic language. Others have suggested that the Sumerians descended from the mountains of the northeast. The early inhabitants of this region were predominantly Semitic, and their speech is called Akkadian. The most important archaeological discoveries in Sumer are a large number of clay tablets written in cuneiform script. Winter, Irene J. WebAre Sumerians and Akkadians the same? Rev. Beer brewing was very important to the Sumerians. ", "Knives, drills, wedges and an instrument that looks like a saw were all known. [96][97], Several Indus seals with Harappan script have also been found in Mesopotamia, particularly in Ur, Babylon and Kish. Those who could afford it sought burial at Dilmun. Rural loans commonly arose as a result of unpaid obligations due to an institution (such as a temple), in this case the arrears were considered to be lent to the debtor. To the south of the region of Sumerians The term therefore came to include Arabs, Akkadians, Canaanites, Hebrews, some Ethiopians (including the Amhara and the Tigrayans ), and Aramaean tribes. [93] In particular, carnelian beads with an etched design in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley, and made according to a technique of acid-etching developed by the Harappans. [105] Semite The adventure-filled tale centers on a Sumerian king named Gilgamesh who is . [81] American anthropologist Robert McCormick Adams says that irrigation development was associated with urbanization,[82] and that 89% of the population lived in the cities. Uruk, one of Sumer's largest cities, has been estimated to have had a population of 50,00080,000 at its height;[53] given the other cities in Sumer, and the large agricultural population, a rough estimate for Sumer's population might be 0.8 million to 1.5 million. Some are surprisingly familiar. The Sumerians called themselves the black headed people and their land, in cuneiform script, was simply the land or the land of the black headed peopleand, in the biblical Book of Genesis, Sumer is known as Shinar. [63] The Sumerians widely believed that masturbation enhanced sexual potency, both for men and for women,[63] and they frequently engaged in it, both alone and with their partners. Yet these texts had been written at a time when mothers were no longer talking to their children in Sumerian. Sumer, site of the earliest known civilization, located in the southernmost part of Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in the area that later became Babylonia and is now southern Iraq, from around Baghdad to the Persian Gulf. The Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods. [61] Neither Sumerian nor Akkadian had a word exactly corresponding to the English word 'virginity', and the concept was expressed descriptively, for example as a/-nu-gi4-a (Sum. Gelb and Westenholz differentiate three stages of Old Akkadian: that of the pre-Sargonic era, that of the Akkadian empire, and that of the Ur III period that followed it. Living along the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, Sumerian farmers grew an abundance of grain and other crops, the surplus from which enabled them to form urban settlements. In Sumerian myth, An and Ki produced a variety of plants on the earth. The temples organized the mass labour projects needed for irrigation agriculture. Not a Friend of ASOR yet? Examples of racial types from D.M MacKenzie, Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, 1915. Anu ziggurat and White Temple at Uruk. What was the Sumerian religion based upon? Citizens had a labor duty to the temple, though they could avoid it by a payment of silver. Standing Male Worshipper, 2900 BCE, via The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. The interest rate was set at 1/60 a month (one shekel per mina) some time before 2000 BC and it remained at that level for about two thousand years. For other uses, see. Proto-writing dates back before 3000 BC. Sumerians created an advanced civilization with its own system of elaborate language and writing, architecture and arts, astronomy and mathematics. While Shuruppaks fatherly wisdom is one of the most ancient examples of written literature, historys oldest known fictional story is probably the Epic of Gilgamesh, a mythic poem that first appeared as early as the third millennium B.C. Each was centered on a temple dedicated to the particular patron god or goddess of the city and ruled over by a priestly governor (ensi) or by a king (lugal) who was intimately tied to the city's religious rites. [41][42], By the time of the Uruk period (c. 41002900 BC calibrated), the volume of trade goods transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facilitated the rise of many large, stratified, temple-centered cities (with populations of over 10,000 people) where centralized administrations employed specialized workers. The region demonstrated a number of core agricultural techniques, including organized irrigation, large-scale intensive cultivation of land, monocropping involving the use of plough agriculture, and the use of an agricultural specialized labour force under bureaucratic control. The Uruk period is a continuation and an outgrowth of Ubaid with pottery being the main visible change. Indeed, could it be that the Sumerians are in some sense an invention of modern scholarship, a homogenizing concept rooted in attempts to essentialize and classify population groups based on language? In the early Sumerian Uruk period, the primitive pictograms suggest that sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs were domesticated. Their religious system was a complex one comprised of hundreds of gods. Thorkild Jacobsen has argued that there is little break in historical continuity between the pre- and post-Sargon periods, and that too much emphasis has been placed on the perception of a "Semitic vs. Sumerian" conflict. Sumerian cities during the Uruk period were probably theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest-king (ensi), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. Ancient Mesopotamia About the race of sumerians, an assyriologist V.V.Emelyanov says that they belong to the mediterranean race of a big aucasian race, and that they were swarthy WebIt demonstrates that Sumerian was genetically related to the Niger-Congo languages of West Africa. They were Hamitic (Africans). What was the race of Sumerians? Sage-Answer In the late 4th millennium BC, Sumer was divided into many independent city-states, which were divided by canals and boundary stones. Your email address will not be published. Plants were also grown in pots or vases. These Saharan people were round-headed ancient Mediterranean type. [60], The Sumerians generally seem to have discouraged premarital sex. But is this picture correct? During the third millennium BCE, the Sumerian civilization of Mesopotamia was culturally defined by the development of the art of weaving. It is fairly certain that it was during the Uruk period that Sumerian cities began to make use of slave labour captured from the hill country, and there is ample evidence for captured slaves as workers in the earliest texts. Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford. What is the media tool used in Mesopotamia in 2400 BC? The ancient name of this language was controversial until 1889 when a bilingual cuneiform text noted that the term, 2023 Call for Member-Organized Sessions and Workshops, ASOR-AFFILIATED RESEARCH CENTERS FELLOWSHIPS, The Sumerian King List or the History of Kingship in Early Mesopotamia, Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. They were thought to be the offspring of the goddess Nammu and were originally united as one. Mesopotamia What ethnicity was Sumerians? Almost everyone in the ancient times had jet black hairs, so this distinction couldnt have been based on the color of their hairs. Ki. The wheel was invented in the 4th century BC in Lower Mesopotamia(modern-day Iraq), where the Sumerian people inserted rotating axles into solid discs of wood. The beginning of the tablet is lost, but the surviving portion begins by recounting how the gods An, Enlil, Enki, and Ninhursanga created the Sumerians and comfortable conditions for the animals to live and procreate. Artifacts, and even colonies of this Uruk civilization have been found over a wide areafrom the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and as far east as western Iran. Sumerian continued to be the language of religion and law in Mesopotamia long after Semitic speakers had become dominant. At one end would stand the podium and a mudbrick table for animal and vegetable sacrifices. The Sumerians developed a complex system of metrology c. 4000 BC. ", clinker-built sailboats stitched together with hair, featuring, skin boats constructed from animal skins and reeds, wooden-oared ships, sometimes pulled upstream by people and animals walking along the nearby banks. What Is The Difference Between Implicit And Imply? Why was Mesopotamia a good place for the 1st civilization? It was laid out on several clay tablets and is thought to be the earliest known surviving example of fictional literature. The reconstruction of the Sumerian world as a story of racial conflict remained in place throughout much of the first half of the twentieth century. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art. Please e-mail info@asor.org if you have questions or need help. The irrigation was accomplished by the use of shaduf, canals, channels, dykes, weirs, and reservoirs. Since Sumerian writing emerged c. 3200 BC. The first saw creation as the result of a series of hieroi gamoi or sacred marriages, involving the reconciliation of opposites, postulated as a coming together of male and female divine beings, the gods. Bottro, Jean, Andr Finet, Bertrand Lafont, and George Roux. The development into a (Sumerian) state in Babylonia seems to have been more gradual than in Egypt and likely concluded slightly earlier as well: 3200 BC in Mesopotamia while 3000 BC in Egypt, but the absolute dating of the archaeological material used to establish these things has such a margin of error that it is not , The only reference to Sumer in the Bible is to `the Land of Shinar (Genesis 10:10 and elsewhere), which people interpreted to most likely mean the land surrounding Babylon, until the Assyriologist Jules Oppert (1825-1905 CE) identified the biblical reference with the region of southern Mesopotamia known as Sumer and, . Metals such as gold, silver, copper, and bronze, along with shells and gemstones, were used for the finest sculpture and inlays. Teaching materials", "Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East", "mtDNA from the Early Bronze Age to the Roman Period Suggests a Genetic Link between the Indian Subcontinent and Mesopotamian Cradle of Civilization", "Sumerians had connections with the Caucasus", "Lexical Matches between Sumerian and Hurro-Urartian: Possible Historical Scenarios", "Has the Garden of Eden been located at last? [28], Some scholars contest the idea of a Proto-Euphratean language or one substrate language; they think the Sumerian language may originally have been that of the hunting and fishing peoples who lived in the marshland and the Eastern Arabia littoral region and were part of the Arabian bifacial culture. Affinities exist between Nubia ware and pottery from Ennedi and Tibesti. For example, Imports to Ur came from many parts of the world. The Akkadians adopted The universe was divided into four quarters: Their known world extended from The Upper Sea or Mediterranean coastline, to The Lower Sea, the Persian Gulf and the land of Meluhha (probably the Indus Valley) and Magan (Oman), famed for its copper ores. Sumerian speakers were among the earliest people to record their beliefs in writing, and were a major inspiration in later Mesopotamian mythology, religion, and astrology. Read More, American Society of Overseas ResearchThe James F. Strange Center209 Commerce StreetAlexandria, VA 22314, 2023 ASOR All rights reserved.Images licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, Contact UsMembershipGiveFriends of ASORASOR Cultural Heritage InitiativesTerms of Use. We use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website. They were already light-skinned. The Sumerians' cuneiform script is the oldest (or second oldest after the Egyptian hieroglyphs) which has been deciphered (the status of even older inscriptions such as the Jiahu symbols and Tartaria tablets is controversial). Nonetheless, these were not exclusive; the gods of one city were often acknowledged elsewhere. According to Hudson, the purpose of these decrees was to prevent debts mounting to a degree that they threatened the fighting force, which could happen if peasants lost their subsistence land or became bondservants due to inability to repay their debt. [98][99][100][101][102][103], Gudea, the ruler of the Neo-Summerian Empire at Lagash, is recorded as having imported "translucent carnelian" from Meluhha, generally thought to be the Indus Valley area. Origin and race of sumerians | e n e n u r u - ProBoards 77 The mortals were indeed the Sumerians, a non-Semitic racial typethat conquered southern Babylonia, and the deities were Semitic, taken over by the newly arrived Sumerians from the indigenous Semites. Lapis lazuli probably originated in northern Afghanistan, as no other sources are known, and had to be transported across the Iranian plateau to Mesopotamia, and then Egypt. Sumer was conquered by the Semitic-speaking kings of the Akkadian Empire around 2270 BC (short chronology), but Sumerian continued as a sacred language. After Mesopotamia was occupied by the Amorites and Babylonians in the early second millennium B.C., the Sumerians gradually lost their cultural identity and ceased to exist as a political force. All these people carry [citation needed], In the early Sumerian period, the primitive pictograms suggest[56] that, There is considerable evidence concerning Sumerian music. Required fields are marked *. Sumer, or the land of civilized kings, flourished in Mesopotamia, now modern-day Iraq, around 4500 BC. If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. Credited with the invention of nothing less than cities, writing and the wheel, they hold an ancient mirror to our own urban, literate world. They were often referred to as Cafsa or Capsians; a group of people not devoid of negroid characteristics according to J Desanges. The Sumerians progressively lost control to Semitic states from the northwest. This period is generally taken to coincide with a major shift in population from southern Mesopotamia toward the north. [48] Eannatum's Stele of the Vultures depicts vultures pecking at the severed heads and other body parts of his enemies. In this way the Sumerians were appreciated and valued in new ways, especially through museum displays in London, Philadelphia and Chicago where a substantial number of the excavated objects had been sent as a result of the division of finds. The rest of the resources and tools that Sumerian slaves used were rather typical of Later Stone Age and Early Bronze Age technology. Each of these cities was like an independent country. Summary. Ziggurats (Sumerian temples) each had an individual name and consisted of a forecourt, with a central pond for purification. 1132. The origins of the Sumerians are murky, but many scholars have suggested that they may have arrived from the south (the oldest city, Eridu, is in the south). At an early stage, following the dawn of recorded history, Nippur, in central Mesopotamia, replaced Eridu in the south as the primary temple city, whose priests exercised political hegemony on the other city-states. Henceforth, Sumerian would remain only a literary and liturgical language, similar to the position occupied by Latin in medieval Europe. [citation needed], Marriages were usually arranged by the parents of the bride and groom;[59]:78 engagements were usually completed through the approval of contracts recorded on clay tablets. The Bible is a history book and it informs us of who these black Sumerians were. Akkadian and Sumerian coexisted as vernacular languages for about one thousand years, but by around 1800 BC, Sumerian was becoming more of a literary language familiar mainly only to scholars and scribes. By 3000 B.C.E., most Sumerians lived in walled city-states. The Sumerians can seem very familiar. [94][89][95] Lapis lazuli was imported in great quantity by Egypt, and already used in many tombs of the Naqada II period (c. 3200 BC). Granaries and storehouses were usually located near the temples. 'un-deflowered', or gi nunzua, 'never having known a penis'. Explanations based on hypothetical migrations have fallen out of favour as evidence for significant cultural continuity in prehistory has been identified, including the development of recording technologies that led to practices of book-keeping and the origins of writing. 77 The mortals were indeed the Sumerians, a non-Semitic racial type that conquered southern Babylonia, and the deities were Semitic, What was the race of Sumerians? [63] Entu priestesses were forbidden from producing offspring[64][60] and frequently engaged in anal sex as a method of birth control. 'head' + 'black' + 'carry'). [34], Sumerian civilization took form in the Uruk period (4th millennium BC), continuing into the Jemdet Nasr and Early Dynastic periods. A problem was therefore created around determining the supposed original homeland of the Sumerians and the exact point in time at which they had arrived in Mesopotamia.
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